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http://agathe.gr/democracy/standard_weights_and_measures.html Standard Weights and Measures The Controllers of Measures (Metronomoi) have also left us many samples of their work. One set of bronze weights (34), inscribed as standard weights of the Athenians, are ... The large unit (stater), weighing nearly two pounds, is designated by a knucklebone, the quarter by a shield, and the sixth by a turtle. ... Countermarked lead weight, fourth century B.C. A lead weight (35), with an amphora symbol and a legend marking it as one-third of the stater, belongs to a somewhat later period. This weight, which may have been used in a shop, has been stamped by the Controllers of Measures with their official seal, depicting the seated statue of a god. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/theater.html Theater Western drama was an Athenian invention which developed late in the 6th century B.C. out of the festivals celebrated in honor of the god Dionysos. Originally held in the Agora, the plays were soon ... The mask is life-size but was probably not used as a mask but as a votive gift to be hung on a wall. ... The mold shows a masked woman lying on a couch, a wreath in her right hand. ... Mold for a statuette of a seated slave, about 35O B.C. |
http://agathe.gr/overview/the_card_catalog.html The Card Catalog A card catalog system has been used since the beginning of the excavations to record the important information related to inventoried objects. Lucy Talcott, one of the original members ... The Card Catalog A card catalog system has been used since the beginning of the excavations to record the important information related to inventoried objects. ... The catalog card became the most important link to all the relevant data concerning an object and has only recently been replaced by a digital database. Recent record shot of A 1, the first architectural find to be cataloged Catalog Card for A 1. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/metroon.html Metroon (Archives) The Metroon served two functions; it was both a sanctuary of the Mother of the Gods and the archive building of the city, a repository of official records (Fig. 19). The present remains ... Metroon (Archives) The Metroon served two functions; it was both a sanctuary of the Mother of the Gods and the archive building of the city, a repository of official records (Fig. 19). ... The Hellenistic building had four rooms set side-by-side, united by a facade of fourteen Ionic columns. ... Figure 20. A dedicatory relief of the Mother of the Gods, 4th century B.C.; one of several dozen copies found in the Agora. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/solon_the_lawgiver.html Solon the Lawgiver By the early 6th century B.C. social tensions in Athens had become acute, pitting the poorer citizens against rich and powerful landowners. Many citizens were reduced to the status of ... The hippeis (knights), those who could afford the expense of maintaining a horse and whose property produced 300 medimnoi a year. ... Ownership of horses required a certain degree of wealth and allowed the man who owned them to assume a role in defending the city as a member of a fighting cavalry, the knights. ... The zeugitai (teamsters), those who maintained a pair of oxen for plowing and whose land produced 200 medimnoi a year Terracotta figure of a pair of oxen driven by a man, 6th century B.C. |
http://agathe.gr/overview/photography.html Photography A photograph made using the traditional silver halide process is a visual record largely unaltered by the photographer. It is this quality of capturing a mirrored image of the scene that lends ... Photography A photograph made using the traditional silver halide process is a visual record largely unaltered by the photographer. It is this quality of capturing a mirrored image of the scene that lends itself to archaeological photography. ... Leslie Shear, director of the excavations and an accomplished photographer, was caught recording the discovery of a herm (S 33). “In 5/A at -2.50 was found a herm lying on its side; it had formed the support of a large statue of a draped woman? |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_speakers.html The Speakers Litigants spoke on their own behalf, although occasionally using speeches prepared by trained professionals; skillful rhetoric was necessary in order to sway a jury. The speeches written by ... Demosthenes' skills as a public speaker in the assembly were honed by training and considerable self-discipline: They say that when he was still a young man he withdrew into a cave and studied there, shaving half of his head to keep himself from going out; also that he slept on a narrow bed in order to get up quickly and that since he could not pronounce the sound of R he learned to do so by hard work, and since in declaiming for practice he made an awkward movement with his shoulder, he put an end to the habit by fastening a split or, as some say, a dagger from the ceiling to make him through fear keep his shoulder motionless. ... The clay fragment preserves the base and part of the wall of a deep bowl. It is identified as part of a waterclock by the clay spout fitted with a small bronze inner tube just above the base. ... Photograph of a reconstructed waterclock in action. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/east_building.html East Building Running southward from the east end of the Middle Stoa is the East Building. Its eastern half takes the form of a long hall with a marble chip floor and stone slabs designed to carry wooden ... Its eastern half takes the form of a long hall with a marble chip floor and stone slabs designed to carry wooden furniture, presumably tables (Fig. 40). The furniture supports are perhaps best interpreted as holding bankers’ or money changers’ tables and suggest that the South Square served a primarily commercial function. The western half of the building consisted of four rooms and a stairway designed to take people down to the lower (ground) level of the South Square. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/ostracism.html Ostracism In addition to the legal assassination condoned in the Law against Tyranny, a less extreme method was also available for removing powerful but dangerous men from public life. This was a formal, ... This was a formal, regular vote for exile, known as ostracism. Each year the Assembly decided whether a vote of ostracism should be held. If a majority of the quorum of 6,000 citizens voted affirmatively, the day was set and at that time a large open area of the Agora was fenced off. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_prytaneis.html The Prytaneis (Executive Committee) The senators administered their meetings themselves. Each tribal contingent in the Boule served in rotation for a period of 35 or 36 days as the Prytaneis, or Executive ... Fragment Of a marble relief showing a banquet, 4th century B.C. ... On the right, a man reclines on a couch behind a table. A woman sits on a stool nearby, with another male figure on the left. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_jury.html The Jury The jurors for each trial were chosen from a large body of citizens available for jury duty for the period of one year. At the beginning of the year, each juror was given a bronze pinakion, a ... At the beginning of the year, each juror was given a bronze pinakion, a plaque that had his name, father's name, and deme (and therefore tribe) inscribed on it. ... Along the side of the machine was a hollow bronze tube, with a funnel at the top and a crank at the bottom. ... A turn of the crank at the bottom produced a single ball. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_ekklesia.html The Ekklesia (Citizens' Assembly) All Athenian citizens had the right to attend and vote in the Ekklesia, a full popular assembly which met about every 10 days. All decrees (psephismata) were ratified ... The Ekklesia (Citizens' Assembly) All Athenian citizens had the right to attend and vote in the Ekklesia, a full popular assembly which met about every 10 days. All decrees (psephismata) were ratified by the Ekklesia before becoming law. As a rule, the Ekklesia met at its own special meeting place known as the Pnyx, a large theater-shaped area set into the long ridge west of the Acropolis. ... Decorated with various images-a bow, a cow, a dolphin, crossed torches, rosette, Nike, a ship, as well as letters (E or K) - these small tokens were turned in for pay, allowing poor citizens to participate without losing a day's wages. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/aiakeion.html Aiakeion Immediately to the east are the poor remains of a large square enclosure, open to the sky and measuring about 30 meters on a side. Built in the early 5th century, at the command of the oracle ... Aiakeion Immediately to the east are the poor remains of a large square enclosure, open to the sky and measuring about 30 meters on a side. Built in the early 5th century, at the command of the oracle of Apollo at Delphi, it was dedicated to Aiakos, a hero of the island of Aegina. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/odeion_of_agrippa.html Odeion of Agrippa Late in the 1st century B.C. the Athenians were given money for a new marketplace by Caesar and Augustus, and the northern half of the old Agora square was filled with two new structures, ... It was a huge two-storeyed structure that must have dominated the square (Fig. 52). ... It was surrounded on three sides by a cryptoporticus (subterranean colonnaded hall) at the lower level, with stoas above. ... It was rebuilt in the early 5th century A.D. as part of a sprawling complex, perhaps a palace, with numerous rooms, a bath, and several courtyards, which extended southward all the way across the old South Square (Fig. 55). |
http://agathe.gr/guide/library_of_pantainos.html Library of Pantainos Lying partially under and behind the Late Roman wall are the remains of a building identified by its inscribed marble lintel block as the Library of Pantainos, dedicated to Athena ... It consists of a large square room and a paved courtyard, surrounded by three stoas that had shops behind their colonnades. ... The dedicator, Titus Flavius Pantainos, was the son of the head of a philosophical school and refers to himself as a priest of the philosophical muses. A second inscription preserves the library rules: "No book is to be taken out because we have sworn an oath. |
http://agathe.gr/overview/the_archaeological_site.html The Athenian Agora The Agora of Athens was the center of the ancient city: a large, open square where the citizens could assemble for a wide variety of purposes. On any given day the space might be used ... The Athenian Agora The Agora of Athens was the center of the ancient city: a large, open square where the citizens could assemble for a wide variety of purposes. On any given day the space might be used as a market, or for an election, a dramatic performance, a religious procession, military drill, or athletic competition. ... Early Geometric jewelry found in a burial. Used as a burial ground and for scattered habitation in the Bronze and Iron Ages, the area was first laid out as a public space in the 6th century B.C. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/stoa_of_zeus_eleutherios.html Stoa of Zeus Eleutherios Lying just south of the railroad tracks, along the west side, are the remains of the Stoa of Zeus Eleutherios (Freedom) (Figs. 8, 9). This cult of Zeus was established after the ... Though dedicated to a god, the building takes the form commonly used for a civic building: a stoa (colonnade or portico), with two projecting wings. ... According to Pausanias it was decorated with paintings done by Euphranor, a famous 4th-century artist, and the shields of those who died fighting for the freedom of Athens were displayed on the building. Rooms were added to the back of the stoa in the Early Roman period and may have housed a cult of the Roman emperors. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_athenian_army.html The Athenian Army From the very beginning, the Athenians were compelled to fight for their new democracy. Their dramatic victories over the Boiotians and Chalkidians in 506 B.C. led many to attribute Athenian ... They went into battle protected by a helmet, breastplate, and greaves (shin guards), carrying a large round shield and long thrusting spear. ... Recovered from a well in the northwest corner of the Agora, this lead strip carries an inscription recording the registration of a horse. On one side is the name of the owner, Konon; on the other a description of the horse, a chestnut, with a centaur brand, as well as its price, 700 drachmas. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/women.html The Unenfranchised I - Women Numerous people resident in Athens and Attica had little part in the political life of the state. Most glaring by modern standards was the exclusion of women, although a similar ... The fragment shows the upper part of a nude woman, probably reclining on cushions at a symposion. She holds a castanet in her left hand and wears disk earrings. She is probably a hetaira, or courtesan, a woman accomplished in the arts of music, conversation, and sex. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/south_stoa_ii.html South Stoa II South Stoa II ran westward from the south end of the East Building, parallel to the Middle Stoa (Figs. 38, 41). Dating to the second half of the 2nd century B.C., it consisted of a single ... Dating to the second half of the 2nd century B.C., it consisted of a single Doric colonnade of limestone, the superstructure reused from a building of the 4th century B.C. Its only adornment is a small fountain set into the back wall. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/citizenship_tribes_and_demes.html Citizenship: Tribes and Demes Every male Athenian, above and beyond the regular universal military training for service in the citizen army, was subject to universal political service. Besides being a ... Besides being a member of the Assembly, he was almost certain, at least once in his lifetime, to be chosen by lot as one of the Council (Boule) of 500 and to serve for a year in this body which prepared legislation for the Assembly and coped, by means of smaller committees, with the day to day exigencies of administration. ... He might be allotted for a year’s service to any of a number of committees or boards such as Treasurers, Lessors of Public Contracts, Auditors, Market Controllers, Controllers of Measures, Grain Wardens, Port Superintendents, etc. ... Every man held his citizenship, which he inherited, through membership in a deme, a group which had its origin in a geographical unit (a neighborhood of the city or a village in the countryside) and which gave to each citizen the third element of his official name, e.g., Perikles, son of Xanthippos, of (the deme of) Cholargos. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_ten_new_tribes.html The Ten New Tribes Kleisthenes instituted a crucial reform, the reorganization of the citizenry into new administrative units called phylai (tribes). In his attempt to break up the aristocratic power structure, ... The Ten New Tribes Kleisthenes instituted a crucial reform, the reorganization of the citizenry into new administrative units called phylai (tribes). ... Citizenship in Athens required prior enrollment in one of the tribes, and such membership was hereditary. A man served in the Boule (Senate) as a member of a tribe, and fought in the army -- where his life literally depended in part on the shield of the next man in line -- in a tribal contingent. ... Model of the Monument of the Eponymous Heroes in a 4th-century B.C. reconstruction. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/state_religion.html State Religion: The Archon Basileus There was no attempt in Classical Athens to separate church and state. Altars and shrines were intermingled with the public areas and buildings of the city. A single ... Public lawsuits fall to him on charges of impiety and when a man is involved in a dispute with someone over a priesthood. ... The warrior holds a spear in one hand and a phiale (libation bowl) in the other. He wears a short tunic with a cloak over his shoulders, a helmet, and greaves. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/temple_of_ares.html Temple of Ares Just north of the Odeion lie the ruins of a building identified by Pausanias as a temple of Ares (Figs. 56, 57). The foundations are of Early Roman construction and date, but the marble ... Temple of Ares Just north of the Odeion lie the ruins of a building identified by Pausanias as a temple of Ares (Figs. 56, 57). ... They can be restored as a Doric peripteral temple, close in plan, date, and size to the Hephaisteion [5]. ... This is the best example of a phenomenon known as "wandering temples," of which there are several similar examples in the Agora, dating to the early years of the Roman empire. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_boule.html The Boule (The Senate) The Athenian legislature also included a deliberative body known as the Boule. It was made up of 500 members -- 50 from each of the 10 tribes -- who were chosen by lot and served ... The Boule (The Senate) The Athenian legislature also included a deliberative body known as the Boule. ... X 23.80 m.), with a cross wall dividing the structure into a main chamber and entrance vestibule. ... Fragment of a marble basin, about 500 B.C. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_athenian_aristocracy.html The Athenian Aristocracy Before democracy, from the 8th to the 6th century B.C., Athens was prosperous economically but no more significant than many other city-states in Greece. Silver deposits south ... This fragmentary day jug shows a symposion with banqueters reclining on a couch, a typically aristocratic activity. On the left a girl plays the double pipes (auloi), providing music for the occasion, and on the right stands a youth. ... Each earring consists of a shaft made of fine wires to which is attached a trapezoidal plaque decorated with filigree and granulation. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_eponymous_heroes.html The Eponymous Heroes Just as all governmental activity and policy stemmed from the individual Athenian citizen, so there was a center in the Agora from which the lines of power went out to all men in all ... The Eponymous Heroes Just as all governmental activity and policy stemmed from the individual Athenian citizen, so there was a center in the Agora from which the lines of power went out to all men in all fields of activity. This was the Monument of the Eponymous Heroes, a long base, surrounded by a fence, on which stood statues of the heroes from whom the 10 tribes took their names (8). 8. ... Notices concerning members of a given tribe would be posted below the statue of the appropriate tribal hero. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/panathenaic_way.html Panathenaic Way Numerous roads led in and out of the Agora square. By far the most important, however, was the broad street known as the Dromos or Panathenaic Way, the principal thoroughfare of the city ... It led from the main city gate, the Dipylon, up to the Acropolis, a distance of just over a kilometer, and served as the processional way for the great parade that was a highlight of the Panathenaic festival. Halfway along, it enters the Agora at its northwest corner and passes through the square on a diagonal, exiting at the southeast corner. ... Sculpted base for a monument celebrating a victory in the apobates at the Panathenaic Games, 4th century B.C. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/slaves_and_resident_aliens.html The Unenfranchised II - Slaves and Resident Aliens Also excluded from political participation were two other large segments of the population: slaves and metics (resident aliens). Slavery was common in ... : Slaves and metics at Athens lead a singularly undisciplined life; one may not strike them there, nor will a slave step aside for you. Let me explain the reason for this situation: if it were legal for a free man to strike a slave, a metic, or a freedman, an Athenian would often have been struck under the mistaken impression that he was a slave, for the clothing of the common people there is in no way superior to that of the slaves and metics, nor is their appearance. ... An archer, carrying a bow, with a combined quiver and bowcase strapped to his waist, rides a horse bareback. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/hephaisteion.html Hephaisteion Overlooking the Agora from the hill to the west (Kolonos Agoraios), is the Hephaisteion, the best preserved example of a Doric temple in mainland Greece (Fig. 12). It was dedicated jointly ... Hephaisteion Overlooking the Agora from the hill to the west (Kolonos Agoraios), is the Hephaisteion, the best preserved example of a Doric temple in mainland Greece (Fig. 12). ... It is built largely of Pentelic marble and carries a lavish amount of sculptural decoration. ... Battle scenes surmount the east and west porches, with a lively centauromachy at the west. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/overthrow_and_revolution.html Overthrow and Revolution In 514 B.C. the tyrant Hipparchos was stabbed to death. The murder, actually the result of a love feud, was quickly deemed a political act of assassination and the perpetrators, ... The murder, actually the result of a love feud, was quickly deemed a political act of assassination and the perpetrators, Harmodios and Aristogeiton, were proclaimed heroes and tyrannicides. ... Fragment of an inscription from a statue base, about 47S B.C. ... For several decades the Spartans had enjoyed a reputation as the best warriors in Greece, and with the help of a Spartan army led by King Kleomenes the tyrants were thrown out in 510 B.C. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_verdict.html The Verdict After the speeches and other evidence had been presented, the members of the jury voted by casting ballots. A series of vase paintings of the early 5th century B.C. show a mythological story, ... The Verdict After the speeches and other evidence had been presented, the members of the jury voted by casting ballots. A series of vase paintings of the early 5th century B.C. show a mythological story, the vote for the arms of Achilles. ... One ballot has a solid axle, the other a hollow axle. ... Photograph of a ballot box. L.: 0.70 m. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/judiciary_and_lawcourts.html Judiciary and Lawcourts The lawcourts of Athens, a city notorious throughout Greece for the litigiousness of her citizens, were both numerous and large. Several of these lawcourts were in the immediate ... Judiciary and Lawcourts The lawcourts of Athens, a city notorious throughout Greece for the litigiousness of her citizens, were both numerous and large. ... Each citizen-juror had a bronze or wooden ticket (26) on which were inscribed his name and a letter indicating to which of the 10 jury-sections he belonged. ... Model of a klepsydra in action. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/southwest_fountain_house.html Southwest Fountain House Closer to the agora proper a row of five public buildings lined the south side of the square in the Classical period (Fig. 29, 36). They comprise several important monuments, though ... Southwest Fountain House Closer to the agora proper a row of five public buildings lined the south side of the square in the Classical period (Fig. 29, 36). ... The westernmost building takes the form of the letter L (Fig. 30). A colonnade on two sides gave access to a large reservoir, the terminus of a long stone aqueduct that approached the building from the east, running under the south street. |
http://agathe.gr/overview/the_altar_of_zeus_and_statue_of_hadrian.html The Altar of Zeus The Agora Excavations began with the aim of revealing the monuments and history of the ancient Agora. Of course, every artifact or feature that was exposed held importance, but when something ... View of the orthostate block (A 404) of the Altar of Zeus Agoraios Nb. ... On July 23, 1931, the excavator filled five pages of his notebook describing a significant discovery of the first excavation season: "A large structure once covered a large part of [the] area, it was almost certainly an Altar." ... The statue of Hadrian lying face down in the Great Drain, February 5, 1932 The difficulty of making a fuller description and taking photographs is apparent in a later comment, “Earth roof must be supported and large block broken and removed before statue can be taken out” (Nb. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/sokrates.html Sokrates The philosopher Sokrates was one of many Athenians critical of the people and their control over affairs of state. His probing public debates with fellow citizens led to his trial for impiety ... The photograph shows the foundations of a house to the left of a roadway. ... What else is appropriate for a poor man who is a public benefactor and who requires leisure for giving you moral encouragement? ... A bust in Naples may reproduce the original by Lysippos. |
http://agathe.gr/publications/guide_books.html Guide Books In a newly revised version of this popular site guide, the current director of excavations in the Athenian Agora gives a brief account of the history of the ancient center of Athens. The text ... Guide Books In a newly revised version of this popular site guide, the current director of excavations in the Athenian Agora gives a brief account of the history of the ancient center of Athens. ... Each monument still visible on the site is described in turn, and helpful maps and plans are a particular feature of this edition. ... After a short introduction to the history of the Agora, each monument is described in turn. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/democracy_from_the_past_to_the_future.html Democracy from the Past to the Future Searching for models for the new government they were creating, America's Founding Fathers studied both the democracy of Athens and the republic of Rome, but they ... They thought Athens was too easily ruled by group passion, rather than reason: Had every Athenian citizen been a Socrates, every Athenian assembly would still have been a mob. ... In support of a 6-year term for Senators, the author cited the misfortune that befalls a government without such continuity. ... In 1977 Senator James Abourezk proposed a constitutional amendment to allow direct initiative nationwide. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/stoa_of_attalos.html Stoa of Attalos Lining the east side of the Agora square is the Stoa of Attalos (Fig. 47), built during the reign of Attalos II of Pergamon (159–138 B.C.), who studied in Athens under the philosopher Karneades ... Stoa of Attalos Lining the east side of the Agora square is the Stoa of Attalos (Fig. 47), built during the reign of Attalos II of Pergamon (159–138 B.C.), who studied in Athens under the philosopher Karneades before becoming king. In a sense, this is a gift from a loyal alumnus, and what he gave the Athenians was a shopping mall. ... The column capitals used upstairs for the inner colonnade are of an unusual type ("Pergamene"), a late adaptation of early Egyptian prototypes. ... It houses storage facilities in the basement, a public display area on the ground floor, and offices and workrooms on the first floor. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/marble_stele.html Law Against Tyranny In 338 B.C. Philip II of Macedon and his son Alexander defeated the Athenians and other Greek states in a battle at Chaironeia in central Greece. In the following year (337/6 B.C.) ... Philip II of Macedon and his son Alexander defeated the Athenians and other Greek states in a battle at Chaironeia in central Greece. ... The decree was written up on a marble stele capped with a handsome relief showing Democracy crowning the seated Demos (people) of Athens. Stele with a relief showing Democracy crowning Demos (the people of Athens), ca. 337 B.C. |
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