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http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_athenian_army.html The Athenian Army From the very beginning, the Athenians were compelled to fight for their new democracy. Their dramatic victories over the Boiotians and Chalkidians in 506 B.C. led many to attribute Athenian ... Recovered from a well in the northwest corner of the Agora, this lead strip carries an inscription recording the registration of a horse. On one side is the name of the owner, Konon; on the other a description of the horse, a chestnut, with a centaur brand, as well as its price, 700 drachmas. ... The eight examples reproduced here are part of a group of thirty similar tokens found in the same well, at a level dating to the second half of the 4th century B.C., as the inscribed lead strip describing Konon's horse. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/theater.html Theater Western drama was an Athenian invention which developed late in the 6th century B.C. out of the festivals celebrated in honor of the god Dionysos. Originally held in the Agora, the plays were soon ... Before large audiences comic poets such as Aristophanes filled their plays with stinging criticism of all the leading politicians of 5th-century Athens, as well as the assemblymen and jurors: They encourage personal attacks if anyone wished, knowing that the butts of comedy are not for the most part of the common people nor from the masses, but rich or noble or powerful; only a few of the poor, ordinary citizens are attacked in comedy, and they only because they meddle in everything or try to become too influential; therefore the people do not object even to the ridiculing of such men. ... The mask is life-size but was probably not used as a mask but as a votive gift to be hung on a wall. ... The mold shows a masked woman lying on a couch, a wreath in her right hand. |
http://agathe.gr/overview/the_site_before_excavation.html The Site before Excavation The Agora lies on sloping ground northwest of the Acropolis, below and east of the extraordinarily well-preserved Doric temple of Hephaistos, popularly known as the “Theseion” ... The Site before Excavation The Agora lies on sloping ground northwest of the Acropolis, below and east of the extraordinarily well-preserved Doric temple of Hephaistos, popularly known as the “Theseion” (a). ... The last destruction occurred in 1826, the result of a siege of the Acropolis during the Greek War of Independence. ... In addition, as well as sharing all the logistical problems inherent in any large-scale urban excavation, the Agora site must be one of the few where a street and a railway divides the area of the excavations. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/standard_weights_and_measures.html Standard Weights and Measures The Controllers of Measures (Metronomoi) have also left us many samples of their work. One set of bronze weights (34), inscribed as standard weights of the Athenians, are ... The large unit (stater), weighing nearly two pounds, is designated by a knucklebone, the quarter by a shield, and the sixth by a turtle. ... Countermarked lead weight, fourth century B.C. A lead weight (35), with an amphora symbol and a legend marking it as one-third of the stater, belongs to a somewhat later period. ... Only the small unit of the liquid measures is preserved; this little jug (36) holds one kotyle (about half a pint). The dry measures are cylindrical vessels well adapted both for emptying and leveling off; one (37) holds about 1½ quarts; the other (38) about ¼ pint. 36. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/odeion_of_agrippa.html Odeion of Agrippa Late in the 1st century B.C. the Athenians were given money for a new marketplace by Caesar and Augustus, and the northern half of the old Agora square was filled with two new structures, ... It was a huge two-storeyed structure that must have dominated the square (Fig. 52). ... Philagros shouted and screamed that they were treating him badly in preventing him from using his own material; but he was not acquitted on a charge which was now well established. ... It was rebuilt in the early 5th century A.D. as part of a sprawling complex, perhaps a palace, with numerous rooms, a bath, and several courtyards, which extended southward all the way across the old South Square (Fig. 55). |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_ekklesia.html The Ekklesia (Citizens' Assembly) All Athenian citizens had the right to attend and vote in the Ekklesia, a full popular assembly which met about every 10 days. All decrees (psephismata) were ratified ... The Ekklesia (Citizens' Assembly) All Athenian citizens had the right to attend and vote in the Ekklesia, a full popular assembly which met about every 10 days. All decrees (psephismata) were ratified by the Ekklesia before becoming law. As a rule, the Ekklesia met at its own special meeting place known as the Pnyx, a large theater-shaped area set into the long ridge west of the Acropolis. ... Decorated with various images-a bow, a cow, a dolphin, crossed torches, rosette, Nike, a ship, as well as letters (E or K) - these small tokens were turned in for pay, allowing poor citizens to participate without losing a day's wages. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_jury.html The Jury The jurors for each trial were chosen from a large body of citizens available for jury duty for the period of one year. At the beginning of the year, each juror was given a bronze pinakion, a ... At the beginning of the year, each juror was given a bronze pinakion, a plaque that had his name, father's name, and deme (and therefore tribe) inscribed on it. ... Along the side of the machine was a hollow bronze tube, with a funnel at the top and a crank at the bottom. ... Decorated with various images-a bow, a cow, a dolphin, crossed torches, rosette, Nike, a ship, as well as letters (E or K), indicating the court to which the juror was assigned or a particular seating area within the court. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/slaves_and_resident_aliens.html The Unenfranchised II - Slaves and Resident Aliens Also excluded from political participation were two other large segments of the population: slaves and metics (resident aliens). Slavery was common in ... : Slaves and metics at Athens lead a singularly undisciplined life; one may not strike them there, nor will a slave step aside for you. Let me explain the reason for this situation: if it were legal for a free man to strike a slave, a metic, or a freedman, an Athenian would often have been struck under the mistaken impression that he was a slave, for the clothing of the common people there is in no way superior to that of the slaves and metics, nor is their appearance. ... An archer, carrying a bow, with a combined quiver and bowcase strapped to his waist, rides a horse bareback. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_ten_new_tribes.html The Ten New Tribes Kleisthenes instituted a crucial reform, the reorganization of the citizenry into new administrative units called phylai (tribes). In his attempt to break up the aristocratic power structure, ... The Ten New Tribes Kleisthenes instituted a crucial reform, the reorganization of the citizenry into new administrative units called phylai (tribes). ... Citizenship in Athens required prior enrollment in one of the tribes, and such membership was hereditary. A man served in the Boule (Senate) as a member of a tribe, and fought in the army -- where his life literally depended in part on the shield of the next man in line -- in a tribal contingent. ... Privileges included access to common grazing land reserved for members of a tribe, as well as access to sacrifices and feasts held in honor of tribal heroes. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/boundary_stones_and_house_of_simon_the_cobbler.html Boundary Stones and House of Simon the Cobbler Inscribed marble posts were used to mark the entrances to the Agora wherever a street led into the open square. Two have been found in situ, inscribed with ... Boundary Stones and House of Simon the Cobbler Inscribed marble posts were used to mark the entrances to the Agora wherever a street led into the open square. ... The limits of the square had to be well marked for two reasons. ... The evidence is circumstantial, but we may well have here the remains of one of Sokrates’ informal classrooms. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/southwest_area.html Southwest Area - Industry and Houses Leaving the area of the boundary stone, one can head southwest up a valley leading toward the Pnyx, meeting place of the Athenian assembly. Here are the complex remains ... Southwest Area - Industry and Houses Leaving the area of the boundary stone, one can head southwest up a valley leading toward the Pnyx, meeting place of the Athenian assembly. Here are the complex remains of a residential and commercial area, used for hundreds of years (Fig. 27). ... One larger structure, the so-called Poros Building, has a long corridor flanked by square rooms, with a courtyard at the rear (Fig. 28). |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/administration_and_bureaucracy.html Administration and Bureaucracy The economy of Athens was supervised by numerous boards of officials in charge of the mint, the marketplace, weights and measures, and the grain and water supplies. Most ... The stater has a knucklebone as symbol and weighs 795 grams. The quarter, with a shield, weighs 190 grams. ... The coins were struck in a wide variety of multiples or fractions of the basic unit, the drachma, which was roughly a day's wage. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_agora_and_pnyx.html The Agora and Pnyx Center of public activity, the Agora was a large open square where all the citizens could assemble (2, 3). It was used for a variety of functions: markets, religious processions, athletic ... The Agora and Pnyx Center of public activity, the Agora was a large open square where all the citizens could assemble (2, 3). It was used for a variety of functions: markets, religious processions, athletic contests, military training, theatrical performances, and ostracisms. ... Boundary stones, such as the one shown below (4), indicate that the Agora had well-recognized geographical limits. 2. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/middle_stoa.html Middle Stoa The appearance of the south side of the Agora was radically changed during the 2nd century B.C. with the construction of several new buildings. This South Square, as it is called, was made ... This South Square, as it is called, was made up of two long stoas with a third building linking them (Fig. 38). ... Traces of a narrow parapet that ran between some of the columns can be made out on individual drums. ... Except for its size the stoa is a relatively modest building, made of limestone, with a terracotta roof (Fig. 39). |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/sokrates.html Sokrates The philosopher Sokrates was one of many Athenians critical of the people and their control over affairs of state. His probing public debates with fellow citizens led to his trial for impiety ... The photograph shows the foundations of a house to the left of a roadway. ... What else is appropriate for a poor man who is a public benefactor and who requires leisure for giving you moral encouragement? ... A bust in Naples may reproduce the original by Lysippos. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_council_and_magistrates.html The Council and the Magistrates Like selection for military service, allotment to the Council was organized according to the division by tribes; 50 members from each tribe acted as a unit in the Council ... An inscription found nearby honors a committee appointed to renew bedding for having done its job well. ... Each board of Poletai made a record on stone of its work (17). ... Other decrees honor citizens of other states who put themselves at the service of Athenians abroad. A typical decree of this sort praises Mikalion “as a benefactor of the Athenian people and a man who always shows himself eager to give to private individuals whatever they need. |
http://agathe.gr/publications/monographs.html Monographs Excavations in the civic and cultural center of classical Athens began in 1931 and have continued almost without interruption to the present day. The first Athenian Agora volumes presenting ... Since lamps from Athens do appear at other sites, the presentation of a well-dated sample of these finds provides useful reference material for scholars working at other sites. ... To these pieces are appended the 191 ostraka, almost all nominating Themistokles, found by Oscar Broneer in a well on the North Slope of the Acropolis. ... By the Late Geometric period, the presence of a few wells indicates a shift to domestic occupation; others containing 6th-century material suggest the presence of workshops and commercial activity as well as houses. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_popular_courts.html The Popular Courts The popular courts, with juries of no fewer than 201 jurors and as many as 2,500, heard a variety of cases. The courts also had an important constitutional role in wielding ultimate ... The Popular Courts The popular courts, with juries of no fewer than 201 jurors and as many as 2,500, heard a variety of cases. ... Bronze ballots and a ballot box were found in a complex of rooms constructed in the late 5th and 4th centuries B.C. and identified on the basis of these finds as lawcourts. ... Before reaching a jury, the case was heard by a magistrate or arbitrators in a preliminary hearing. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/the_athenian_navy.html The Athenian Navy With thousands of kilometers of coastline and hundreds of islands, the Greek world was likely to be dominated only by a naval power. A generation after the establishment of democracy ... The Athenian Navy With thousands of kilometers of coastline and hundreds of islands, the Greek world was likely to be dominated only by a naval power. A generation after the establishment of democracy Athens became such a power under the influence of Themistokles. ... At her peak, Athens had a fleet of 400 ships, a force requiring close to 80,000 men. ... These citizen oarsmen were recognized as early as the 5th century B.C. as a significant force in the maintenance of the democracy. |
http://agathe.gr/overview/the_staff.html The Archaeologists The First Generation The Agora Excavations staff and work force, 1933. Archaeologists, staff, foremen, and workmen gathered under the Hephaisteion for a group photograph. The staff of ... Archaeologists, staff, foremen, and workmen gathered under the Hephaisteion for a group photograph. ... Young was posed sitting amidst stacks of pottery removed from a well (Deposit A 17:2) that were ready for sorting. ... A Radical Departure in the Conduct of Excavation In 1980, there was a major change in the way the Agora was excavated. |
http://agathe.gr/publications/picture_books.html Picture Books The Athenian Agora Picture Book series, started in 1951, aims to make information about life in the ancient commercial and political center of Athens available to a wide audience. Each booklet ... Each booklet describes a particular aspect of everyday activity, as revealed through the work of archaeologists and historians. ... Google Books | English PDF | Buy Online | Search for Items Inside An Ancient Shopping Center: The Athenian Agora Author: Burr Thompson, D.Publication Date: 1971ISBN: 087661635XPicture Book: 12 As well as being a political center, the Agora was the focus of a noisy and varied commercial life. ... Every kind of case, from assault and battery to murder, and from small debts to contested fortunes, were heard in various buildings and spaces around the civic center, and the speeches given in defence and prosecution remain some of the masterpieces of Greek literature. As well as describing the spaces where judgments were made (such as the Stoa Basileios, office of the King Archon), the author discusses the progress of some famous cases (known from the speeches of orators like Demosthenes), such as the patrimony suit of a woman named Plangon against the nobleman Mantias, or the assault charge leveled by Ariston against Konon and his sons. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/military_service.html Military Service After the 18-year-old was registered in his deme as a citizen and was approved by the Council, he entered military service as a young conscript (ephebe) with other members of his tribe ... Military Service After the 18-year-old was registered in his deme as a citizen and was approved by the Council, he entered military service as a young conscript (ephebe) with other members of his tribe. ... Drawing of a lead cavalry tablet, fourth century B.C., registering a horse belonging to Konon, chestnut in color, with a centaur brand, worth 700 drachmas. ... Part of the cavalry archives consisting of assessment records of horses written on lead strips (9), lead tokens for the issuing of armor (10), and clay tokens serving to identify official messengers from specific officers have been found (11), all discarded down a well at the northwest corner of the square. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/tyranny.html Tyranny As happened in many other Greek states, a tyrant arose in Athens in the 6th century B.C. His name was Peisistratos, and after several unsuccessful attempts he seized power in 546 B.C. and ruled ... Tyranny As happened in many other Greek states, a tyrant arose in Athens in the 6th century B.C. ... Such tyrannies were a common feature of Greek political life as states made the transition from an aristocracy to either a democracy or an oligarchy. ... In the picture on this vase, water gushes from a spout shaped like the head of a panther into the water jar (hydria) below. |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/factional_politics.html Factional Politics: The Ostracism of Themistokles A group of ostraka found together in a pit on the North Slope of the Acropolis is of special interest. There were 190 ostraka, mostly the round feet of ... Factional Politics: The Ostracism of Themistokles A group of ostraka found together in a pit on the North Slope of the Acropolis is of special interest. ... Seen in retrospect, Themistokles was as great a figure in Athenian history. When a great find of silver was made in southern Attica, it was he who convinced the Athenians not to distribute the money among themselves but to spend it building a great fleet of 200 triremes (war ships). |
http://agathe.gr/democracy/practice_of_ostracism.html Ostracism Soon after their victory over the Persians at the battle of Marathon in 490 B.C., the Athenians began the practice of ostracism, a form of election designed to curb the power of any rising tyrant ... The procedure of ostracism was simple. Once a year the people would meet in the Agora and take a vote to determine if anyone was becoming too powerful and was in a position to establish a tyranny. If a simple majority voted yes, they met again in the Agora two months later. ... They preserve the names of all the well-known statesmen as well as several unknown aspirants to political power. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/monument_of_the_eponymous_heroes.html Monument of the Eponymous Heroes Across the street from the Metroon lie the remains of the Monument of the Eponymous Heroes (Fig. 21). When Kleisthenes created the democracy in 508/7 B.C., he assigned ... Citizenship depended on membership in a tribe, the army was arranged in tribal contingents, one served in the boule as a member of one’s tribe, and festivals were held in honor of one’s tribal hero; the tribal system was the foundation on which the new Athenian democracy was built. ... The monument took the form of a long base for the ten bronze statues representing the ten eponymous heroes of the tribes (Fig. 22). It served as a public notice board and announcements concerning citizens would be hung on the face of the high base beneath the appropriate tribal statue. |
http://agathe.gr/guide/history_of_the_agora.html History of the Agora The excavations of the Athenian Agora have uncovered about thirty acres on the sloping ground northwest of the Acropolis (Fig. 3). Material of all periods from the Late Neolithic to ... During the Late Bronze Age it was used as a cemetery, and some 50 graves have been found, dating from 1600 to 1100 B.C. ... It continued in use as a cemetery throughout the Iron Age (1100–700 B.C.) and over 80 graves, both burials and cremations, have been found. ... The area was given over to a variety of large villas in the 4th and 5th centuries A.D. |
http://agathe.gr/overview/the_stoa_of_attalos.html The Stoa of Attalos The Stoa of Attalos was originally built by King Attalos II of Pergamon (159–138 B.C.), as a gift to the Athenians in appreciation of the time he spent in Athens studying under the ... The Stoa of Attalos The Stoa of Attalos was originally built by King Attalos II of Pergamon (159–138 B.C.), as a gift to the Athenians in appreciation of the time he spent in Athens studying under the philosopher Karneades. What he gave the city was an elaborate stoa, a large two-storeyed double colonnade with rows of shops behind the colonnades. ... The first floor is used for the excavation offices, workrooms, and archives as well as for additional storage. |
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